Muhammad (SAW) in
the Mirror of Islam
By 'Allamah Tabataba'i
Translated from the Persian by William Chittick and Dr. Seyyed Hossein
Nasr
ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS
Islam is based on two realities: the blessed personality of the Prophet
Muhammad, who was chosen exactly fourteen lunar centuries ago to deliver
God's message and to be the leader of mankind; and the Quran, the Book
from God which is the Prophet's enduring miracle and which contains
God's words in the form of intellectual and practical teachings of a
universal nature. These two realities must be considered as one of the
most important factors in the development and perfection of human life,
or rather, they are the most important factor to have manifested itself
over the course of fourteen centuries in the faith and practice of
hundreds of millions of men, extending its influence deep into every
aspect of their society.
It
is true that of the world's religions Islam is the youngest and that its
followers are fewer in number than the sum of the adherents other
faiths, yet Islam is possessed of certain distinguishing characteristics
which sets it apart from other religious ways. For example, if we refer
to the sacred books of Hinduism, and in particular the Veda, we see that
the religious teachings presented there are almost exclusively of an
ascetic nature and at the same time that they are directed towards a
minority of the religion's followers. Thus, the majority of Hindus are
excluded from deriving direct spiritual benefit from these sacred books.
Buddhism and also Christianity display with Hinduism the same
exclusively ascetic outlook in their teachings. In the case of
Christianity this is obvious from the four Gospels and the other basic
religious texts. There are no practical injunctions or social laws and
moreover philosophy and rational thought are looked upon with disfavor.
The Divine Sacrifice and the remission of the sins of mankind are
doctrines which reduce the relevance of injunctions concerned with this
world.
Other religions have either ceased to draw men to themselves, such as
Sabeanism and Manicheanism, or else are limited to a particular race of
people, such as Judaism.
Thus it is only Islam which gives first importance to rationally
demonstrable beliefs and positive individual and social injunctions, as,
it is hoped, the present paper will make clear.
The Prime Importance of the Individual from the Point of View of Human
Nature
Human nature seeks no more than to perpetuate as far as possible its own
existence and to achieve its instinctive desires. If the first step man
takes in his development is to form social groupings, and if he
preserves these societies by acting in accordance with their laws-thus
surrendering to the same extent a degree of his individual freedom-, it
is in order that by depriving himself of one portion of his freedom he
gain and benefit from another portion by being better able to provide
for his innate requirements and his subsistence.
The
first goal of creation is the happiness of the individual; the happiness
of society follows upon this. In other words the purpose of creation is
the perfection of human nature, and this perfection is realized in the
being of the individual, not in the shape and form of society. Thus, man
is directed towards the formation of social groupings to preserve the
individual. For in order that he may realize the fundamental purpose of
life-happiness and well-being-it is necessary that he should follow an
orderly system of living, a system which inevitably must be social. He
must eat, drink, clothe himself, sleep, rest, wed, bear offspring,
secure his needs, and through the use of his mind provide the means of
his own subsistence.
The Effect of the World View of the Individual upon his Activity
The
form and characteristics of this orderly system which man follows in his
life is dependent upon his conception of the nature of the Universe and
of himself, who is an inseparable part of that Universe. Thus we see
that a group of men do not admit the existence of a creator for the
world and imagine that the world came into being accidentally and that
man is only this material form which comes into existence at birth and
ceases to exist at death. These men organize their way of life and rules
for living with a view to the material needs of their ephemeral earthly
existence, and this alone . They follow a path which can lead to no more
than a limited material happiness and well-being.
On
the other hand those who accept a creator for the universe and believe
that the regulation of the affairs of men and of the world is in the
hands of "the gods" do not consider man's life to be just this material
existence; they organize their way of living in such a way as to attract
the favor of the gods and keep away their anger, and in this manner to
achieve happiness in life and remain safe from unpleasant occurrences
resulting from gods' wrath.
Again, those who accept the Unity of God and believe that the Universe
and all that is in it is governed by One God who is All-Wise and
All-Powerful, and that man does not cease to exist at death but lives an
eternal life, will organize their lives accordingly, that is, with an
eye to assuring felicity in both worlds.
It
is thus clear that "religion" is the organization of life, and that life
lived according to a program is religion. Those who try to separate
religion and life and claim that the first of these is only empty
formalism are sadly mistaken. It is in view of this that Islam calls the
path one follows in life "religion", while it calls the true way the
"Straight Path" and the false way the "Deviated" or "Crooked Path". God
says: "The curse of Allah is on evil-doers, who debar (men) from the
path of Allah and would have it crooked, and who are disbelievers in the
Last Day." (Quran VII, 44-45. This and all subsequent quotations from
the Quran are from the translation by Mohammed Marmaduke Pickthall, The
Meaning of the Glorious Koran, New York, 1953).
The Islamic World View
The
concept upon which the Prophet of Islam founded his religion is that all
of existence has been created by the One God, and that every one of the
parts of existence is directed by God towards the perfection and
happiness peculiar to that part. Man also, who possesses eternal life,
is directed towards the happiness and welfare peculiar to his nature;
and this he gains by following the path shown to him by God.
The
Holy Prophet addressed his message to natural man, that is, man endowed
with human nature and God-given intelligence and will who is not tainted
by superstition and blind belief. Such an individual with his God-given
primordial nature has the innate capacity and ability to apprehend the
above- described world view. With the slightest reminder he naturally
understands that the world in its vastness and grandeur and its perfect
arrangement and order is the creation of a transcendent Creator whose
infinite Being is the source of every beauty and perfection and who is
above all ugliness and evil. Such an individual understands that the
creation of the world and its inhabitants was not without meaning and
purpose; that the life of this world will be followed by another life,
and that the good and bad actions of this world will not go unanswered
for. And as a result he understands that there must be a way of life
peculiarly suited to the needs of man which will enable him to live
according to his own real nature.
Islam's choice of natural and primordial man as the object of the
religious message has several basic results:
1. The Principle of Equality. The Islamic teachings apply to all.
There is no distinction between black and white, man and woman, noble
and humble, rich and poor, king and beggar, strong and weak, eastern and
western, learned and ignorant, old and young, or between those who are
present and those who will come in the future, for all of these share
human nature and that which it implies in common. Equality of this sort
is limited to Islam; other ways, each in its own measure, have certain
discriminatory principles. For example, Hinduism distinguishes
fundamentally between Brahmins and non- Brahmins and between man and
woman; in Judaism a distinction is made between the children of Israel
and the Gentiles, and in Christianity between man and woman. As for
secular social systems, in these there is a distinction between subjects
of a country and foreigners. It is only Islam which considers humanity
as one and has uprooted completely the principle of distinction and
discrimination. "O mankind! Lo! We have created you male and female, and
have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. Lo! the
noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct." (Quran
XLIX, 13) "Lo! I suffer not the work of any worker, male or female, to
be lost. Ye proceed one from another." (Quran III, 195) That is, male or
female, you are all of the same human status.
2. The Principle of Realism. In view of the fact that man is
provided with the instinct of seeking reality and of discerning between
the real and the unreal, the laws and injunctions laid down by Islam are
based upon a correspondingly realistic view of things. This can be
explained as follows: Although man in his natural activity is stimulated
towards his vital goals by feelings and emotions, he in fact sets out
after real goals, not illusion and fantasy. The newly born baby who
cries in his hunger and reaches for his mother's breast in search of
milk desires that which is milk in reality, not the illusion of milk; he
cries from real hunger, not from fantasy and imagination. Every
individual who strives in the way of achieving his own interests seeks
his own real interests, not their mental concept. In the same manner
when feelings and emotions present certain desires to man, and without
being able to take into account his true best-interest stimulate him
toward certain goals, it is the faculty of discrimination or reason
which harnesses and modifies these emotions and shows to man that which
is in reality the good and the evil and the rightness and the wrongness
of his action.
It
is reason, moreover, which forbids the sick person from eating harmful
foods although he wishes to eat them; it is reason which prevents man
from entering upon dangerous activities, hence depriving him of a large
part of his freedom of action; it is reason which is man's single
superiority over other animals, and his most important faculty for
distinguishing the real from the illusory.
The
laws and injunctions brought by the Prophet of Islam are based upon a
realistic view of things, not upon the whims and fancies of men. That is
to say that man must perform that action which is really and truly in
his best interest even if it is against his fancy; and he must avoid
that action which he feels like performing but which is not in
conformity with his real interests. The case of the religious community
is the same: it must accomplish what is truly in its best interest and
what is in conformity with its felicity, even though this act may be
contrary to its wishes; it must not perform that action which is the
wish of the majority of its members but which is contrary to its true
interest.
In
the language of the Holy Quran that which is in conformity with reality
or with man's true best interest is called "The Truth" (al-haqq). It is
the single goal towards which man must direct his endeavor and after
which he must strive. "After the Truth what is there saving error?"
(Quran X, 33) "And if the Truth had followed their desires, verily the
heavens and the earth and whosoever is therein had been corrupted"
(Quran XXIII, 71).
An
almond nut which is placed in the ground under the necessary conditions
will after a few days break its skin, and a green shoot will come forth
from its kernel as well as a number of roots which are put forth in
various directions; by way of the roots the shoot will take continuous
nourishment from the ground and will constantly grow and develop until
ultimately it becomes a fully grown almond tree with trunk, branches,
leaves blossoms and fruit.
The
sperm of an animal placed in the womb of the female of the species under
particular circumstances will assume the form and shape peculiar to
itself and by means of the activity peculiar to its species will day by
day become larger and more complete until it reaches the limit of its
perfection.
If
we investigate in the same manner all of the creatures of the world one
by one it will become perfectly obvious that for each of them there is a
way peculiar to itself through which it reaches the limit of its own
perfection, and that from the first day of its coming into being it is
attracted towards its end. In its development it never goes astray nor
does it change its direction, as if, for example, an almond shoot could
develop into a horse or a horse could go to sleep one night and wake up
the next morning an almond tree. Rather every creature is guided toward
its final goal by means of creation itself, and in traversing this path
of development it never falls into error.
The
path which has been laid out for each creature leading to its final goal
is one which is in conformity with the means and potentialities with
which it was provided by its own nature. These means allow it to attract
what is of benefit and repel what is harmful and threatens its
existence. Chickens eat grain, sheep and cattle feed upon forage, and
wolves, leopards and hawks hunt for game, for each is equipped with
particular digestive systems which are proper only for particular
nutritive substances. In the same way, birds defend themselves with
their beaks, sheep and cattle with their horns, scorpions and bees with
their stings, lions and leopards with their teeth and claws, and deer by
flight, for the defensive equipment of each of them is just this. In
summary, each of these creatures moves in its life towards a particular
goal and end. It performs actions in which the equipment provided by its
very existence guides it, and the nature of which this equipment
determines.
This guidance and determination is the same general guidance and
determination which the Quran has referred to and attributed to the
Creator: "Our Lord is He who gave unto everything its nature, then
guided it aright." (Quran XX, 50) "Who createth, then disposeth; who
measureth [i.e., determineth], then guideth." (Quran LXXXVII, 2-3).
Obviously, man also, who is one of the species of creation, is not an
exception to this general rule. His natural disposition and character
show to him the path which he should take in life, and point out and
distinguish the duties and responsibilities which he must fulfill. "From
what thing does he create him (man)? From a drop of seed. He createth
him and proportioneth him, then maketh the way easy for him." (Quran
LX)CX, 18-20).
Meditation upon this and upon our previous discussion will show that the
result of both of these discussions is the same, that is, that correct
actions and deeds (those which are in conformity with man's true best
interest)- which man must choose by means of his instinct of discerning
between the real and the illusory-are the very same actions towards
which the nature of man guides him, endowed as it is with its own
peculiar equipment. It is thus that the way towards which the Holy Quran
invites man, which it has named "the Religion of the Truth", which it
also refers to as the natural and primordial religion, and attributes it
to creation itself. "So set they purpose (O Muhammad) for religion as a
man by nature upright-the nature (framed) of Allah, in which He hath
created man. There is no altering (the laws of) Allah's creation. That
is the right religion." (Quran XXX, 30). "By a soul and Him who
perfected it, and inspired it (with conscience of) what is wrong for it
and (what is) right for it. He is indeed successful who causeth it to
grow, and he is indeed a failure who stunteth it." (Quran XCI, 7-10).
From another point of view, since creation is the work of God and since
every sort of beauty and appropriateness which is observable in it is
the result of His Mercy, that which is appropriate to human nature
inasmuch as it determines the actions which man must perform is called
"the Will of God". (This is of course the Will of God inasmuch as it
ordains laws, guides men in his actions, and holds him responsible for
these actions; it is not the same as the Will of God inasmuch as it
creates-which can never be disobeyed or violated.) Likewise the duties
and rules which result from that which is appropriate to man's nature
are called the commands and prohibitions of God. "The Lord bringeth to
pass what He willeth and chooseth. They (men) have never any choice.*
(Quran XXVIII, 68).
Since the religion of Islam consists of duties and commands from God,
the Creator, and since the person who follows its doctrinal and
practical injunctions has submitted himself to the Will of God, in the
language of the Holy Quran this religion is called "Islam" ("submission"
or "surrender"). "Lo! religion with Allah (is) the Surrender. (Quran
III, 19). "And whoso seeketh as religion other than the Surrender (to
Allah) it will not be accepted from him." (Quran III, 85).
3. The Principle of Equilibrium, between the Material and the Spiritual.
The third result of Islam's message being directed at natural man, a
result which is indeed one of the great achievements of this religion,
is that a middle way is taken between materiality and spirituality. This
is in contrast to Judaism, which, as can be observed in its Holy Book,
the Torah, is not concerned with spiritual matters, and with
Christianity, which on the contrary-according to the explicit sayings of
Jesus-is not concerned with the material life of this world. Other
religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism and even Zoroastrianism,
Manicheanism and Sabeanism, which to one degree or another are concerned
with spiritual things, have separated the spiritual way from material
life, to the extent that the connection between the two has been totally
severed. It is only Islam which chooses the middle way and bases itself
upon the foundation of primordial human nature. towards his God, and
include expressions of servitude in the face of His Lordship, poverty
and need in the face of His Wealth and Independence, lowliness in the
face of His Grandeur, insignificance in the face of His Majesty and
Glory, ignorance in the face of His Knowledge, incapacity in the face of
His Power, and submission in the face of His Will. Moreover, to the
extent possible these expressions have been given a social character,
such as in the case of the groups which gather for the daily
congregational prayers, the larger groups which meet for Friday prayers,
and the still larger gathering which takes place at the time of the
pilgrimage to Mecca.
A
second portion of these injunctions concern duties which man has in
social surroundings and in relation with his fellow man. Of course in
these duties, which are the Islamic laws, the sense of responsibility
towards God has been taken into account, for man must surrender only to
His Will (that is, the requirements of His creation). In other words,
all actions must be performed in the shadow of the three basic
principles of Islam: Divine Unity, Prophecy, and the Last Day. "Say: O
People of the Scripture [Jews and Christians]! Come to an agreement
between us and you: that we shall worship none but Allah, and that we
shall ascribe no partners unto Him, and that none of us shall take
others for lords beside Allah. And if they turn away, then say: Bear
witness that we are they who have surrendered (unto Him)." (Quran 111,
64).
From the previous discussion it has become clear that in the religion of
Islam the path to be followed in life has been ordered and arranged in
such a way that man's social and material life resembles a cradle in
which the spiritual life is nurtured. The inner spiritual light of the
practicing Muslim is such that all of his individual and social actions
contribute to purifying his soul and strengthening its radiance.
Although outwardly he is with people, inwardly he is with God, and
although he is in the midst of a crowd, he dwells in the spiritual
retreat of the divine secret. At the same time that he is running here
and there in pursuit of material goals, and is undergoing a series of
events both bitter and sweet, pleasant and unpleasant, beautiful and
ugly, and in general is involved in the events of the tumultuous
external world, his heart is free and exists in a world of tranquility
in which he sees the Face of God wherever he looks. And whither so ever
ye turn, there is Allah's countenance. (Quran II, 115).
A
pious Muslim extends his spiritual life into every aspect of his
material life. Wherever he is and whatever he is doing he is in contact
with God. Everything with which he occupies himself in the material
world is a mirror in which he sees God reflected. On the other hand,
non-Muslims who turn towards the spiritual life imagine that their
natural and every-day life is a veil between themselves and the Truth
they are seeking. As a result they are forced to abandon normal life and
to assume an unaccustomed manner of living in their quest after
spiritual perfection. Whatever the advantages of such a way, from the
point of view of a person who lives a normal life it is a difficult road
to follow and one in which to persevere requires an extreme degree of
will power. However, the person who follows the spiritual life according
to the directives of Islam knows full well that such a way is easier
than that of Islam, for such people, by abandoning every-day life, have
taken the easy way out and have fled from the difficulty of continual
vigil and effort. They have set a barrier in the road towards perfection
which creation itself and the means it has put at man's disposal have
prepared. Such men have set out on a path of their own fancy, and it is
questionable whether they will ever reach the goal which creation has
determined for them.
In
addition, given that the world and all it contains are the creation of
God and that the phenomena of the world, each according to the measure
of its own existence, are signs of the Truth and mirrors displaying God,
and given that man along with the various conditions which mark his
primordial nature is one of these signs, then it is necessary that in
the spiritual life (the way of knowledge of self and of God) God be
recognized in every situation. All of these mirrors must be utilized in
the acquisition of divine knowledge and in the contemplation of God's
Beauty, for if this is not the case man will gain nothing more from his
labors than an imperfect knowledge or a perfect ignorance.
4. Knowledge and Wisdom from the Point of view of Islam. The person
who has made a cursory study of the religions and creeds of the world
will have no doubt that the dignity and honor which Islam has accorded
to knowledge and wisdom and the extent to which it has encouraged their
acquisition is unparalleled in any other religion or ideology, whether
revealed or non-revealed. It is the Holy Quran which asks, "Are those
who know equal to those who do not?" (Quran XXXIX, 9), and which praises
the exalted station of knowledge in the most eloquent manner. And it is
the Holy Prophet who has said "The pursuit of knowledge is incumbent
upon every Muslim, *Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and
"Seek knowledge, even unto China." Again, it is the Holy Quran which
commands its followers never to stray from the way of knowledge nor to
follow what is only supposed or assumed, and never to accept without
deliberation what passes before their sight or crosses their minds, for
they will be responsible for their beliefs. "(O man), follow not that
where of thou hast no knowledge. Lo! the hearing and the sight and the
heart-of each of these it will be asked." (Quran XVII, 36).
As
has become clear Islam encourages its followers to acquire knowledge
with all the powers at their disposal, and in this respect it has
designated knowledge of religious jurisprudence or doctrinal sciences,
and the injunctions of the religious law (Shari'ah) as mandatory." And
the believers should not all go out to fight [in the holy war]. Of every
troop of them, a party should go forth, that they (who are left behind)
may gain sound knowledge in religion. (Quran IX, 122).
A
point which must be kept in mind is that the capacity of individuals for
the comprehension of scientific and intellectual truth varies. There are
people who have no talent for logical thought and who, with their simple
minds, live in a surrounding of physical labor and on a level of purely
material life, where there are others whose thought is logical and who
by their very nature take a special joy in comprehending profound
concepts and scientific theories. Still others have cut their attention
from both thought and physical labor and, having a special aversion for
the dark world of matter and its deceiving beauty and fleeting
pleasures, find in themselves a particular attraction towards the
transcendent world and a peculiar fascination for its lasting and
infinite beauty, of which the beauty of this world is only the reflected
image. Such men easily comprehend the verities and mysteries of the
transcendent world by means of inner illumination.
It
is with a view to this diversity, which is clearly visible among men,
that Islam instructs each of these three groups in its own terms and
language. One group it has taught by means of the external and formal
aspect of religion and a second group by way of intellectual
demonstration, while the third group it has instructed to struggle
against the carnal soul and to purify the heart. In the same way, in the
Quran God has struck a similitude about His Own utterances and
expressions: "He sendeth down water from the sky, so that valleys flow
according to their measure." (Quran XIII, 17). The Holy Prophet has
said, "We prophets have been commanded to speak to men according to the
measure of their understandings."
Those among its followers who have not the taste for rational
demonstration and who would face the danger of error and deviation if
they were to attempt to traverse this path, Islam has charged with no
more than the measure of their ability, and beyond the three principles
of religion (Divine Unity, Prophecy and the Last Judgement) it only
instills them with simple practical injunctions such as command to do
good and prohibitions from committing evil; this type of formulation is
found in a great number of Quranic verses and in saying of the Prophet
and the Shi'ite Imams.
Of
course in the case of the three principles of religion man in his
primordial nature can engage in a simple form of rational demonstration,
and hence he will have accepted nothing but definitely proven knowledge.
And in fact this method provides him with rational proof of the
remaining teachings and injunctions which he has accepted without
rational demonstration, for the truth of the principle of prophecy
proves in a definitive manner the validity of all of the saying which
have reached us from the Prophet.
The
way of rational demonstration-Islam teaches those people who are endowed
with sound minds and who have the capacity to comprehend scientific
theories and intellectual and logical arguments through logical and
rational demonstration. In other words, it guides them towards that
which their uncorrupted and reality-seeking primordial nature
immediately perceives. It does not first impose upon them its doctrines
and beliefs and then defend these by reasoning and proofs.
The
Book and the Tradition, that is, the verses of the Holy Quran and the
sayings of the Prophet and of the Shi'ite Imams-which make clear the
meaning and purpose of the Quranic verses-are full of this type of
rational demonstration. In them the Islamic beliefs and doctrines are
explained in detail by means of the simplest forms of expression and the
most convincing proofs, and likewise, mention is made in them of the
general and universal benefits and advantages of the Islamic laws and
injunctions.
Obviously, we must not overlook the fact that the meaning of discussion
and demonstration of the benefits and advantages of the Islamic laws and
injunctions is not that if an individual Muslim or Islamic society in
general does not understand a particular injunction, that injunction
should be rejected. For as we have already mentioned, these laws were
promulgated by means of prophecy, and the proof of the validity of
prophecy is a summary proof of the validity of these laws, even if we do
not possess the detailed reason for this.
The
way of purification of the soul-The third group of men are those who are
ready and eager to sever all material attachments and to turn their
attention away from the deceiving adornments and illusory desires of
this world. Such men are prepared to forget all that is other than God
and to close their eyes to every beauty and ugliness and every sweet and
bitter experience of this transient and illusory existence. Opening the
eye of discernment 15
towards the eternal world, they are prepared to contemplate without the
veil of materiality the radiance of the Majesty and Grandeur of God, to
traverse the stages of human perfection which must be crossed upon
leaving this fleeting life, and to enter into the Proximity of the
Divine. With such men Islam converses secretly of the divine mysteries
in a language which they alone understand, and thus it guides them from
the depths of ignorance to the pinnacle of knowledge and wisdom.
A Possible Criticism and its Answer
A
number of orientalists have said that Islamic mystical and metaphysical
doctrines have been borrowed from those of India, for Islam in itself is
no more than a series of extremely concrete and simple beliefs and
sterile forms of worship. The succinct reply to these claims is provided
nicely by the words of the poet: "O Sweetheart, the difficulty is that
you're no judge of words."
We,
of course, in our answer to this criticism, do not wish to defend Islam
from the point of view of its mystics and engage in proving the validity
and originality in the face of Indian mysticism of the various ways
which they have traversed on the spiritual path. In the same way, in our
discussion of rational demonstration we were not concerned with
analyzing and proving the validity of all the books on philosophy
written by Muslims, and in our discussion of the way of the formal
aspects of religion we did not declare as correct the way of the
generality of Muslims whatever it might be. Rather, our goal in this
article is limited to a general survey of the original and genuine
Islamic sources, that is, the Book and the Tradition, without concerning
ourselves with agreeing or disagreeing with the activities and conduct
of any particular one of the foregoing classes of men.
The
claim of the above-mentioned orientalists is based upon the principle of
evolution, according to which the development and perfection of a
natural phenomena is explained in a scientific manner. This principle
has been generalized to include every sort of happening in whatever
sphere, even habits, customs and phenomena of a spiritual nature. Thus
the root cause of every event is sought in preceding events. According
to the same principle it has been said that Islamic laws were borrowed
from those of the Romans and Islamic doctrines from the philosophical
ideas of the Greeks.
These orientalists have been mistaken in their judgement in two
respects. First, they have considered what is called "mystical
intuition" to be of the same order as normal thought and hence they have
imagined that the knowledge gained by purification of the soul is a
system of poetical thoughts, much as if a poet with his overflowing and
creative imagination and his eloquent means of expression could voice
such concepts better than a mystic knower of the divine secrets. A
similar mistake is made in the case of revelation, which is the
celestial perception of prophets and the means of receiving divine
sciences and laws. As a result, the basic source of Islamic doctrine and
injunctions is represented as being Greek thought and Roman law. This
mistake is perfectly obvious in the discussions carried on about
prophecy and the "mode of thought" of prophets. Moreover, the words and
utterances which have reached us from the prophets-whether their claim
to prophecy be true or not-openly contradict such opinions.
The
second mistake is that, even if we accept the theory of evolution as
proven and definitely established, this theory must not be taken as
providing the reason for the manifestation of an instinctive drive. For,
an instinct placed within a species' primordial nature at its creation
will be manifested within each individual of that species (provided
there be no external impediment), whether or not there is a precedent.
As
a case in point it can be said that diversity in foodstuffs and the
preparation of sophisticated cuisine was learned by the Arabs from the
Persians, but it cannot be said that the Arabs learned how to eat from
the Persians. Likewise, it can be said that democratic government with
its manifold administrative organizations spread to the East from the
West, but this cannot be said about the very art of forming a society
and establishing a government.
In
our previous discussion it became clear that the way of purification of
the soul, that is, the spiritual life and mystical intuition, is innate
within the nature of man; once awakened through the necessary groundwork
and the removal of obstacles, it will direct man to enter upon the path
of spiritual illumination. Hence, religion, which by its very nature is
concerned to one degree or another with the transcendent and eternal
world, cannot but cause
the
appearance of certain among its followers, who, this hidden urge having
been awakened within them, will sever all attachments with this fleeting
world full of pain and hardship, and with the hope of absolute bliss and
serenity will concern themselves with the eternal abode. And in practice
also we see that in every one of the world's religions there exists a
group enamored of the spiritual life and mystical way.
By
comparing the presentation of spiritual matters in the basic texts of
the world's religions it can be clearly observed that the texts of Islam
have concerned themselves with the description of everlasting felicity
and the external world more than the texts of other religions.
Therefore, the appearance of the way of the purification of the soul
within Islam is perfectly natural, without there being the need for any
relationship as to its origins with India or with any other place.
Furthermore, as history is there to prove, a large number of the
companions of Ali (the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet and the
first Shi'ite Imam) such as Salman, Kumayl, Rashid, Maytham and Uways
were under his direct spiritual guidance and instruction -at a time when
Islam had not yet reached India and when there could be no question of
contact with Indian thought. The fact that the chains of spiritual
initiation (silsilah) of practically all of the Sufi orders in Islam
reach back to Ali further corroborates this point.
The Difference in Means of Expression between Islamic and other
Mysticisms
The
delicate and refined expressions of Islamic mystical doctrine in
contrast to the formulation of other mysticisms, and especially to that
of the Indians, has the advantage of elucidating mystical verities
within the wrapping of formulations of a more general nature. Hence,
everyone is able to profit from them, each in the measure of his
understanding. Other mystical ways do not possess this distinction.
It
is for this same reason that Islam has been saved from the harmful
results, which have affected other religions, by presenting mystical
truths openly and unambiguously. For example, in the case of Indian
mysticism, if we study the Upanishads carefully, we will see that the
doctrine presented there is a precise and extremely profound expression
of the Unity of God, but at the same time that it is so bold and
explicit that any one who refers to it who is not completely versed in
mystical and metaphysical doctrine will consider its marvelously
complete formulations as nothing but superstitious prattle, or at the
very least he will interpret passages which express the Unity of God in
the most sublime manner as being nothing but incarnationism, pantheism
and idol worship.
This claim, moreover, is proved by the opinions which many orientalists
who have specialized in Sanskrit have voiced concerning Indian
mysticism; for after the tremendous amount of research which they have
undertaken in the original Hindu and Buddhist texts they still consider
Indian mystical doctrines as nothing but superstition, produced by the
minds of men deprived of the advantages of life. And the basic reason
for all such opinions on the part of orientalists is the explicitness
and the shocking nature of the bold formulations of these texts.
Further Consideration of the Islamic Message
In
the same way that God's creation has placed a particular kind of
material life within the reach of mankind and has not discriminated
among men but has equipped each of them with equal means, it has also
placed the spiritual life, which is hidden behind the veil of material
life, within the reach of all men. And in the same way that the
perfection of the material life of man lies in the manifestation and
actualization of all his positive and negative actions and deeds-which
he performs by means of his body-so also creation has extended the
perfection of the spiritual life to include all of those actions and
deeds. In harmony with creation, Islam has considered the spiritual life
to belong to all men and has made no distinction between them, and
likewise it has extended the spiritual life to all the positive and
negative aspects of men's lives. It invites men to accept the ties of
social life and to act in a positive manner in traversing a determined
path. In teaching this way it has had recourse to indications enclosed
in the covering of normal and every-day expressions. This is because our
verbal formulations are in case born of the thoughts of the generality
of men. We use them in our social and material life in order to
facilitate mutual understanding, and by means of them we exchange
thoughts and mental concepts. Now mystical and contemplative
comprehension, which is rarer than the elixir of life and which
throughout history has never found general acceptance, is something
completely different from normal human expression. The person who wants
to formulate into concepts the knowledge gained through intuitive and
mystical comprehension is like the person who tries to describe by means
of words the colors of the rainbow to one blind from birth. And the
person who puts contemplative and mystical insights into the mold of
words is exactly like the person who carries water from place to place
with a sieve.
It
is for this reason that Islam has had recourse to symbols and
intimations in expressing mystical truths, and has thus remained
untouched by the misfortunes which have overtaken other religions.
A Brief Consideration of the Spiritual Path
It
may possibly be imagined that the claim that Islam has expounded the
mystical way by means of intimations and symbols is unfounded and
amounts to chasing false ghosts. However, sufficient meditation upon
Islamic teachings and formulations, and a weighing of these against the
agitated and ecstatic states of the Islamic mystics, will prove the
opposite and will show that hidden within themselves and by allusion
these teachings elucidate all of the stages of perfection which are
traversed on the mystical way, although a true and detailed
comprehension of these states is only possible through mystical
intuition.
The
travellers on the spiritual path, who as a result of their natural and
primordial readiness have surrendered their hearts to the infinite
Beauty and Perfection of the Truth, worship God only out of love, not
out of hope for reward or fear of punishment, for to worship Him in
order to gain Paradise or to avoid hell is in fact to worship that very
reward and punishment in place of God.
As
a result of the divine attraction which has engulfed their hearts, and
more particularly as a result of having seen that God has revealed the
verse "Therefore remember Me, I will remember you" (Quran II, 152) and
hundreds of other Quranic verses where the remembrance of God is spoken
of,
wherever and in whatever state they happen to be the mystic travelers
are occupied with His remembrance: *Such as remember Allah, standing,
sitting
and
reclining." (Quran III, 191). And when they hear the messages of the
Beloved, "Lo! in the heavens and the earth are portents for believers"
(Quran XLV, 3), "And there is not a thing by hymneth His praise" (Quran
XVII, 44), and "And whither so ever ye turn, there is Allah's
countenance" (Quran II, 115), they understand that all existent things
are mirrors, each displaying the unique Beauty of the Truth in
accordance with the possibilities of its own being. Other than their
quality of being mirrors they have no existence in themselves. Hence
such men look to every phenomenon with love and eagerness and have no
object other than to contemplate the Beauty of God.
And
when they hear God's messages "O ye who believe! Ye have charge of your
own souls. He who erreth cannot injure you if you are rightly guided
(Quran V, 105) and "Thou, verily, O man, art working towards thy Lord a
work which thou wilt meet (in His presence)" (Quran LXXXIV, 6), they
understand that by the nature of creation itself they are bound within
the framework of their own souls, and other than the way of their souls
there is no road open to them to reach God. Whatever they see or find in
the expansiveness of the world they see and find in themselves. It is
here that man understands that in fact he is cut off from all places and
things and other than he himself and his God there is no one else. Even
if such a person is in the midst of a hundred thousand people he is
alone, and if others see him in the midst of a crowd, he sees himself in
a spiritual retreat far away from everyone else, no one being with him
but God. It is then that he looks at himself and sees all things within
himself, and he understands that he himself is also only a mirror in
which the unique Beauty of God is manifested, and that he has nothing
but God. When he has remembered God in this fashion and has cleansed his
heart and emptied it of vanity and frivolity, the remembrance of God
becomes firmly fixed within his soul and he enters among the ranks of
the people of certainty (al-yaqin) and God's promise. "And serve thy
Lord till the inevitable (al-yaqin) cometh unto thee" (Quran XV, 99) is
fulfilled. The doors of the kingdom of the heavens and the earth open to
him and he sees that all things are possessed absolutely by God. "Thus
did We show Abraham the kingdom of the heavens and the earth that he
might be of those possessing certainty." (Quran VI, 76).
The
person endowed with such a vision will behold the three stages of Divine
Unity. First the Unity of God in His Acts will be revealed to him. He
will see with certainty that it is God who directs the Universe and all
that it contains, and that the innumerable causes and agents which are
at work in the world, whether theirs be the activity of free will or of
necessity, are all painted upon the canvass of creation by His
all-powerful Hand. Cause and effect and the relationship between the
two-each is brought into being and executed by the One. "And unto Allah
belongeth the Sovereignty of the heavens and the earth." (Quran XLV,
27).
Secondly the Unity of God's Names and Qualities will be disclosed to him
and he will see without intermediary that every quality of perfection
which appears in the world, and likewise every quality of beauty and of
majesty, whether life, knowledge, power, might, grandeur or whatever, is
a glimmer from the infinite Source of Light which is the Truth, and that
these qualities shine forth through the variegated windows which are the
existences of things with the distinctions they possess. "Allah's are
the fairest names. (Quran VII, 180).
Finally in the third stage of Divine Unity he will behold that all of
these varied qualities are the manifestations of an infinite Essence,
and that in reality each of them is identical with every other and all
are identical with the Essence Itself. "Say: Allah is the Creator of all
things, and He is the One, the Almighty." (Quran XIII, 16).
The Superiority of Islam in the Doctrine of Divine Unity
The
above are the three stages which the lovers of the Truth in the various
religions of the world pass through. When they begin their travel on the
way of spiritual perfection they take these stages to be their final
goal. Islam, however, does not limit itself to these stages but
delineates a goal for its followers which is even higher and which
surpasses the goal formulated in the text of any other religion. For, it
does not stop at negating all limitations from God and considering Him
as infinite and transcendent over all qualification, but it goes so far
as to negate from Him this very quality of Infinity (since every quality
[even that of Infinity] cannot help but "qualify" and so limit that to
which it is attributed.) Hence the Divine Essence is considered as
transcending all names and designations and even as transcending this
very description. The sixth Shi'ite Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, according to
a tradition which is quoted by al-Kulayni in the book Usul-al-kafi, has
deduced this stage from the following verse of the Holy Quran: "Say
(unto mankind): Cry unto Allah, or cry unto the Beneficient, unto
whichsoever ye cry (it is the same) . His are the most beautiful names."
(Quran XVII, 110) . However, since further elucidation of this doctrine
would mean that we must enter a philosophical discussion which is not in
keeping with the nature of the present article, for the present we must
leave this aside.
Sanctity in God
The
followers of the path towards perfection from the beginning of their
journey until the point where they reach final peace witness a great
deal which must remain hidden from the eyes and hearts of the
earth-bound inhabitants of the material world, and a consideration of
these states and stations would be beyond the scope of the present
article. What is important here is the question of sanctity in God
(wilayat-i ilahi).
When the travellers on the spiritual path reach the stage of Divine
Unity and enter into the proximity of God, they let go totally of what
they had possessed up to that time, for they have come to know that
everything belongs to God. They give up the false claim of "owning"
things and of being independent in this ownership. It is then that an
indescribable tranquility and repose comes over them and they are
released absolutely from all pain, fear and sorrow. "Lo! those who say:
Our Lord is Allah, and afterward are upright, the angels descend upon
them saying: Fear not nor grieve, but hear good tidings of the paradise
which ye are promised. We are your protecting friends in the life of the
world and in the Hereafter." (Quran XLI, 30-31). Lo! verily the friends
of Allah [those who possess sanctity, wilayah] are (those) on whom fear
(cometh) not, nor do they grieve." (Quran X, 63).
It
is at this point that worldly joys, sorrows, successes and failures
appear to them as all the same, and having found a new existence they
view the world and all that it contains in a new light. His he who was
dead and We have raised him unto life, and set for him a light wherein
he walketh among men, as him whose similitude is in utter darkness?"
(Quran VI, 123). And in the end they and everything they possess belongs
to God, and God to them: 'Whoso is near to God, God is nigh unto him."
Conclusion
From our discussion it has become clear that the spiritual life in Islam
is wider in its scope and more profound in its depth than what is found
in other religions, for, as we have explained, Islam in its breadth has
laid down detailed guidelines for all of the possible situations of
human existence, whether as regards this world or the next; and in its
upward flight and its depth it aims at a goal beyond that of other
creeds. |